Rajasthan Board RBSE Class 11 Business Studies Notes Chapter 1 Reproduction in Angiospermic Plants Business in Ancient Bharat: Nature and Practices
→ Ancient India implies the time period before Indus Valley civilization till the establishment of Delhi Sultanate (1200 AD).
→ During this period, many dynasties ruled in India such as – Maurya dynasty, Shunga dynasty, Satavahana dynasty, Kushan, Gupta, Pallavas, Cholas, Chalukya, Gurjar, Pratihara, Pal, Sen, Rashtrakuta dynasty.
→ World’s first tidal clock was built in Lothal in around 2500 BC which is present day Mangrol harbour.
→ One can conclude on the basis of degree of homogeneity found in hand-made goods in Harappan culture that art and sculpture was fully organized and goods distribution system was well-managed and systematic.
→ In the past few years, seven such places have been excavated from Indus valley, which reveal many facts about foreign trade in Harappan culture.
→ Less commodities were imported from Mesopotamia as compared to the commodities exported from India, that is, India’s exports far exceeded her imports.
→ Harbours and ports found in Lothal proves the fact that foreign trade was done through sea—route.
→ The major items exported from India included— cotton textile, spices, ivory and ivory made goods, pearls, precious stones, cinnamon, pepper, etc.
→ The import trade in India included silver, gold, copper, coral, wine, datepalms, Arabian horses, slaves, etc.
→ Indian Traders also served as intermediaries between western countries and China.
→ India exported gold and lead to China and silk and China clay utensils were obtained in exchange and were sold to the countries of West Asia.
→ Indus valley people used bullock carts, oxen, donkeys to travel on land route, while boats and ships were used for sea travel.
Maritime Trade (from 600 BC to 300 AD)
- Bodhayan has mentioned many periodical sea voyages in the life of citizens of north India.
- Ancient Buddhist literature also contains ample evidence of sea trade done by merchants.
- Strabo has written that Mauryans had monopoly in the art of building ships.
- Even in that time period, such big ships were there, which could accommodate 1000 passengers or animals along with seven carvans.
- Bhragukuch, Shuprk, Barberikum, Sheruk, Tamrilipti were the famous ports of that time.
Trade Through Land Route (600 BC to 1200 AD)
- Chinese sources state that from 650-750 BC, four major powers fought to exercise their monopoly in central Asia. These powers were Turkey, Tibet, Arabia and China.
- In eighth century, the route passing through North Burma used to go China via Kamrup. This means that many travellers used this route to travel from India to China.
- One more route was used to reach China from Bihar. Jabkat-a-Nasiri mentioned the reference of import of horses by many travellers through this route.
- Many merchants and traders travelled through North-West Indian route to Iran. Ibnkurdolaba, Al-Masodi, Al-Idri and Alberuni have written about this route in their literature.
Units of Measurement and Exchange
→ Indus Valley people used weights and balances to weigh the goods – 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 weighing measures were there at that time.
→ In the beginning, during Vedic period, barter exchange system was in practice. Price of cow was taken as a unit of exchange. Later on, gold minted NISHK was used as money.
→ Different markets were there for different products during Mauryan period. Kashmir, Kaushal, Vidarbh and Kalinga were trade centres for diamonds. Himachal Pradesh was popular for leather, Bengal for Muslin, Tamrapami Panday and Kerala were well-known places for pearl.
→ During Mauryan period, trade was under full control of the king. Different supervisors/officers were allocated for the functions like commerce and trade, inspecting weighs and measures and for collecting toll tax.
→ According to Kautilya, Kardbhic is a species of pearl. As their origin is from the river ‘Kardhic’ of Iran, they are named Kardbhic.
→ During Gupta period, Indian trade and commerce were at the height of their prosperity. During this period, India became a major centre of international trade.
→ India had very good trade links with Romans, but because of the decline of Roman Empire, the flourishing Indian trade also dwindled.
→ By the end of 5th century AD, alongwith the decline of Roman empire as well as the downfall of Sasani empire of Iran, Indian trade was adversely affected.
→ Alongside the land routes, Arabian traders extended their control on Arabian Sea as well as Indian Ocean also.
→ In Gupta period, a ‘haat’ market in one of villages of the group used to be held every week every fortnight, where goods produced in these villages were exchanged or sold.
→ We find references of two types of traders in Gupta period – Sarthawah and Sresthis. Both Sresthi and Sarthawah had their one representative each in the Zila Parishad.
→ The writings of Kalidas give us information that the government made full arrangement for the security of traders travelling through land and water routes.
→ During Gupta period, the businessmen faced the problem of robbery. On land routes, robbers, bandits and on sea route, pirates used to pillage the traders.
→ To protect themselves from this situation, most of the traders used to move in caravans. Sarthawah would be the leader of their caravans.
→ In Harsha’s reign, trade and commerce recorded heavy decline. In the absence of centralized rule, the well-established and prosperous convention of domestic and foreign trade faced a severe decline.
Trade Routes
→ In ancient India, major trading centres were located along the coastal areas.
→ Chinese silk was sent through India via Bactria to the western countries. That is why this land route is known as ‘silk route’.
→ Indus people had commercial/trade links with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Turkemenia.
→ During Mauryan period, there was a network of overland route in West Magadh.
→ Kautilya has called the highways as ‘Sanyan Path’ and the ships sailing across the oceans were called Pravahn.
→ On the Red Sea coast, a Port ‘Barniss’ was constructed, from where three main overland routes proceeded to the famous port of ‘Alexendria’.
→ During the Mauryan period, three important trade routes were built. First route from Patliputra through Kaushambi and Ujjain to Berigaja. Second route joining Patliputra to Mathura passing through Indus valley till Bactria, the third one starting from Patliputra to Nepal, passing through Vaishali and Shravasti.
→ South India had two major trade routes— One Starting from Machlipattam and from Vincond passing from Hyderabad and finally to Berigoja.
→ In Central Asia, Indian traders’ caravans travelled across Bactrian trade centres crossing over Hindukush mountains.
→ Alberini, who came to India in early eleventh century, has described about fifteen road—routes of this time.
Role of State in Trade
→ The State played a dominant role in developing and flourishing trade since Indus valley civilization till the Sultanate period. Building and maintenance of trade routes, provision for rest houses on these trade routes, to ensure safety and security of traders and their cargo, etc. was the responsibility of the chief of the state.
→ During Mauryan period, besides land revenue, the main source of income of the king was import and export.
→ To simplify and to facilitate trade during Mauryan Period, the king started minting coins. In Kautilya’s Arthashastra, there is a mention of four types of coins which were made of gold, silver and copper.
→ During Gupta period, tax was imposed on imported goods and domestically- produced goods known as ‘Bhutowav Prathyay’.
→ Traders were provided security during the Gupta period, but in the post- Gupta period, the caravans of the traders were frequently robbed by dacoits, giving a setback to trade and commerce.
→ By the eleventh century, ‘Tur’ tax was levied as water tax on boats and the officer realizing such tax was known as ‘Tarik’.
Role of Trade in Cultural Expansion
There are two main reasons behind cultural expansion:
- Trade Expansion
- Trend of Religious treatises/missions.
→ It was the result of commercial and trade exchange with the countries like China, Korea, Philippines, etc., that Buddhism spread rapidly.
→ Many Indians in large number, in the first millennium BC, settled and established their colonies towards the east. As a result of trading and peaceful penetration, the consequences can be seen up till now.
→ The commercial intercourse between Babylonia left its deep impact to the extent that figures of Indian elephants and apes are inscribed on their currency and buildings.
→ Trade of Indian teakwood flourished between Barygaza and Euphrates.
→ Egyptians dyed cloth with indigo and wrapped their mummies in South Indian muslin to preserve them.
Business in Ancient Bharat: Nature and Practices Class 11 RBSE Notes Important Terms
• Ancient India : Time period before Indus Valley Civilization till the establishment of Mughal Empire (16th century).
• Lothal : The world’s first harbour was made in Lothal which, at present, is known as Mangrol’s harbour. During Indus valley civilization, it was a major means of sea trade with Mesopotamia Shorturgaye. Outside the Sindhu valley, seven places have been excavated which reveal many facts about foreign trade in Harappan culture. Shorturgaye is situated in Afghanistan at the confluence of Axas river and Kokacha river.
• Jataka : The tales of the birth of Buddha are known as Jataka in Buddhism.
• Mastool Sail : Bamboo mast on a boat through which a cloth was pulled and tied properly. In which air filled up and the boat move at an easy pace.
Gold Nishk was used as a currency in the Vedic period. Shatpatha Brahmina, (a book) mentions ‘Shatmaan’, which was used as a gift for the Brahmans. Historians believe that ‘Nishk’ and ‘Shatmaan’ must have been used to weigh the metal quarter.
• Kautilya : A great scholar during Mauryan Empire in ancient India. He is also known as ‘Chanakya’ and ‘Vishnugupt’. He is the composer of the great book ‘Arthashastra’.
• Panyadhyaksh : A government officer in the Mauryan empire, who supervised commerce and trade.
• Paulvadhyaksh : This officer used to inspect weights and measures in the Mauryan Empire.
• Shulkdhyaksh : He was the main officer for collecting toll tax on bridges.
• Kardbhic : According to Kautilya, it is a species of pearl. As their origin is from the river ‘Kardhic’ of Iran, that is why they are named as Kardbhic.
• Sresthi and Saarthwah : Two types of traders in Gupta period — viz – Sresthi and Saarthwah. Sresthis were very renowned persons, so one of their representatives was given place in Zila Parishad. Sresthi used to do trade as well as lent funds to traders at a particular rate of interest.
• Silk route : In ancient period, Chinese silk was sent through India via Bactria to the western countries. That is why this land route is known as the silk route.
• Sanyan Path : The water route of sea was named ‘Sanyan Path’ by Chanakya (Kautilya).
• Pravhan : The ships sailing over oceans were named Pravhan.
• Praveshya and Nishkramya : In Mauryan Period, duty on import was known as Praveshya, while duty on export was known as ‘Nishkramya’.
• Vartni — In Mauryan territories, the traders used to travel in large caravans trudging along long distances. The protection of these ‘caravans’ from robberies, piracy, etc. was the duty of the state, and in exchange of this, the state charged toll tax from traders called ‘Vartni’.
• Bhutovav Pratyay — In Gupta period, the tax imposed on imported goods and domestically-produced goods was known as Bhutovav Pratyay.
• Tur — Near eleventh century, ‘Tur’ Tax was levied as water tax on boats.
• Tarik — The officer who collected Tur was known as ‘Tarik’.