RBSE Class 12 Biology Notes Chapter 14 Biotechnology: General Introduction

Rajasthan Board RBSE Class 12 Biology Notes Chapter 14 Biotechnology: General Introduction

Introduction

1. Biotechnology is not a new discipline.-Basic concept of biotechnology was known to human from ancient time and it was practiced by our ancestors as early as about 1000 years back in the form of production of wine, beer, vinegar, bread etc.

2. Subconsciously, biotechnology was used in ancient time in daily life for fulfilling needs of life.
For example-Curdling of milk, making cheese, identifying plants and selecting suitable variety for cultivation.

3. The modem biotechnology in many ways is similar to the older (classical) biotechnology, where we now have developed advanced and modernized methods for selective manipulation of genetic material of useful microbes and the genome of higher plants and liverstock animals for welfare of human.

4. Presently biotechnology has grown as a multi disciplinary field involving application of scientific and technological processing of various biological agents to provide improved products of commercial use.

5. Biotechnology word was first used by Karl Ereky (1919) [An agricultural engineer of Hungary] for the biological technique and processes by which important products are obtained.

Definition

Biotechnology word has been derived from the world “Bio” = living and Technology = technique. Thus biotechnology is the branch of science in which engineering and technology is used to solve the problems related to the requirements of organisms. In simple terms use of microbes such as bacteria, unicellular animals and plants, different cells, their components and their biological processes to produce useful substances for betterment of mankind is called biotechnology.

One of the most popular definition of biotechnology is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of material by the biological agents (microbes, whole cells or multicellular organisms) to provide goods and services.

According lo European federation of Biotechnology—’’Biotechnology is the integrated use of biochemistry, microbiology and engineering to obtain technological or industrial application of the potential of microbes tissues, cells and organs” grown in tissue culture”.

Another definition of biotechnology is the use of biological organisms or their constituent for the transformation of inputs in to commercial outputs.

Brief History of Biotechnology

Biotechnology is by no means a new descipline and has been in use since time immemorial for fullment of human needs. Some important ancient and modem discoveries and achievements in this field are listed in table -14.1

Table 14.1 : Major Historical Dates of Biotechnology
Year —– Important Discovery / Invention and Inventors
6000 BC —– Use of Yeast in making Beer and Wine
4000 BC —– Leavened Bread. Formation of alcoholic beverages by alcoholic fermentation of fruit juices.
2000 BC —– Production of Cheese in ancient Greece
1150 AD —– Production of Ethanol
1663-1675 —– Cell (dead) was discovered by Robert Hooke
AD — and Antony Von Leeuwenhoek discovered Protozoa and Bacterial cell.
1799-1802 —– The word Biology was rendered individually by Karl Friedrich Burdach (1799), Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (1800) and Jean Baptist De Lamarck (1802).
1885 —– Escherichia coli bacterium was discovered by Theodor Escherich.
1886 —– Waldeir discovered Chromosomes
1897—–Edward Buchner explained the cell free fermentation in which conversion of glucose into alcohol was done by enzymes. He discovered enzyme zymase.

1915 —– Frederic W. Wort discovered Bacteriophage.
1919 —– Karl Er6ky, first of all used the term Biotechnology.
1928 —– Alexander Flemming discovered Penicillin.
1941 —– Genetic Engineering word was first of all used by Jack Williamson in his book Dragon’s Island.
1953 —– James Watson and Francis Crick deciphered model of Double Stranded Structure of DNA.
1970 —– Hemilton D Smith, Thomas Kelley and Kent Wilcose discovered Restriction endonuclease.
1972 —– Artificial gene synthesis (Yeast tRNA) was done by Mr. Hargobind Khurana and colleagues.
1973 —– Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer first of all performed experments on Recombinant DNA.
1975 —– George Kohler and Cesar Milstein produced monoclonal antibodies through hybridoma technology.
1981 —– Gene synthesis machine was developed.
1982 —– Genetically engineered microbes produced Insulin was approved in U.S.A. and U.K.
1983 —– Karry, B. Mullis first of all discovered Polymerase Chain Reaction and was awarded Nobel Prize in 1993 in chemical sciences. Synthesis of Artifical Chromosome.
1985 -1990 —– Use of monoclonal antibody in diagnostics. Begining of Human genome Project. Use of genetically engineered growth hormone for treatment of dwarfism.
1997 —– Ian Wilmut and collegues worked on clone of sheep Dolly. Sequencing of yeast genome completed. 2000 —– Human genome cloning by Advanced cell technology’ company, America.Genome sequencing of Aribdopsis plant was completed.
2001 —– First Genomic map of rice completed.
2003 —– Sequencing of Human genome completed.
2010 —– Researchers of J. Craig Venter Institue . synthesised first artifical cell.
2010 —– Death of Hargobind Khurana
First clinical trial of use of stem cells derived
from human embryo in treatment of spinal cord injury.
2015 —– First succesful attempt by gene therapy in treatment of Leukemia (Brehus and Kasim)
2016 —– Clinical trial of vaccine of Zika Virus was approved by Food and Drug administration (FDA).

Techniques used in Biotechnology

Biotechnology is a multi disciplinary field involving various disciplines of science. Each of the contributing subject has specific role in developing products useful for organisms. Some of the main technique are as follows:

Plant tissue culture
Animal Tissue culture
Plant Genetic Engineering
Animal Genetic Enginering
Production of monoclonal Antibody
Recombinant DNA Technology
Embryo Transfer in Animal
DNA nanotechnology

Besides these fields biotechnology is also used in many other fields.

Note : Currently two terms-Traditihnal biotechnology and Modem biotechnology are popularly used in context with biotechnology. Biological control and food fermentation technology are included under traditional biotechnology whereas modem biotechnology deals with recombinant DNA technology, monoclonal antibody production, genetic engineering and related areas. These techniques are complex and relatively more expensive.

Modern Biotechnology

The following are important techniques covered under modem biotechnology.

Biosensor

All organisms contain biosensor which have functional system resembling to mechanical devices.
Biosensors are products of biological components (such as tissues, microbes, cellorganelles, receptors, enzymes, antibodies nucleic acids etc.) which interact in different ways with the analyte.
Thus biosensors are a mixture of biomaterials which transform the chemical and biological stimulus in to electric signal with the help of transducers.
Blood sugar detector is an example of commercial biosensor which breaks or digests blood sugar with the help of glucose oxidase enzyme.

Important Applications of Biosensor ‘ Technology

Glucose monitoring in diabetes patients, other medical health related targets.
In the field of environment e.g. the detection of pesticides and river water contaminants such as heavy metal ions.
Remote sensing of airborne bacteria so as to encounter bioterrorist activities.
Remote sensing of water quality in coastal waters by describing online different aspects of ethology.
Detection of pathogens.
Determining levels of toxic substances before and after bioremediation.
Routine analytical measurement of folic acid, biotins,Vit. B₁₂ and pantothenic acid.
On the basis of function and nature, biosensors are of many types such as fluorescent glucose biosensor, DNA biosensor, ozone biosensor, microbial biosensor, metastatic cancer cell biosensor, nano biosensor etc.

Biochips

Biochips are also called as DNA chips or DNA micro array.
Biochip is a collection of small DNA molecules immobilised to a solid surface.
This technique is used by scientist to measure the level of expression of several genes at one time.
A. Fodor and colleagues (1991) developed first bio chip.
The main substrate used in biochip is made of silica quartz, soda glass, and plastic etc. These are selected on the basis of their chemical structure, physical properties and as per requirement of the experiment.
Gene Chips—These are microchips on which complimentary DNA probes are pasted and are able to identify the samples used for experimentation. Microarray—The microarray is of following type :

(a) DNA microarray—The size of DNA microarray is even smaller than postal stamp. Approximately 4 lakh cells are immobilised on inert (glass) surface. In each cell, there is found a microspot of DNA. In each microspot single stranded c-DNA (complementary DNA) sequence of different genes is found.

(b) Protein microarray—Protein microarray is a technique based on group binding analysis.

It depends upon the products formed as a result of interaction between the target molecules present in the solution and the immobilized molecules.

Applications of protein microarray are

Study of interaction between

Nucleic acid and protein.
Protein and protein
Protein and receptor.
Medicine and protein target.
Enzyme and receptors
Most common example of protein microarray is antibody microarray.

Biofilm

Biofilm is a group of microbial cells adhered to each other and immobilized on a surface. This complex is normally. covered by a matrix made up of polysaccharides. Thus biofilm is made up of microbial cells and extracellular polymer substances [EPS], Biofilms may be formed in natural or modified environment. Biofilm functions as basic unit in waste water treatement and processes such as sudden change in quality of water etc.

Bio-Technology in India

1. In our country extensive research is going on in the field of biotechnology in various national and international institutes of repute and universities.

2. Considering the importance and role of biotechnology in human welfare, Government of India established “National biotechnology Board”-NBTB” in 1982.

3. Intially it was under the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India but looking into importance of biotechnology independent department named as Department of Biotechnology (DBT) was established in 1986. Main objective of this department is to develop basic infrastructure and facilities in field of biotechnology research in national and international institutes and in universtities, establish specific research institutes and provide grant inaid for their development. In India, following are specific centres for research in the field of biotechnology.

Indian Institute of Science-Bangaluru-Genetic Engineering.
Madurai Kamraj University, Madurai.
Bose Institute, Kolkatta.
Jawahar Lai Nehru University, New Delhi.
Delhi University, Delhi
Poona University, Pune (Animal Cell Culture and Virology).
National Chemical Laboratory, Pune (Plant Tissue Culture).
Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi (Plant Tissue Culture, Photosynthesis, Plant molecular biology and Agriculture Information Sciences).
Centre for. Cell and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad (Oncogene, Cell transformation, Nucleic acid and Protein Structure)
Natural Immunological Research Institute, New Delhi Research on Immunity.
Microbial biotechnology institute : Enzyme engineering Department of Biotechnology has established eleven information distribution centres and fifty subcentres in different institutes and universities. The main objective of these centres is to provide help to the institutes, groups and scientists working in the field of science. Presently these centres and subcentres are providing training relating to techniques of bioinformatics through- workshops.

Note : Institutes established by Department of Biotechnology for germplasm storage, conservation and reestablishment

	Name of Centre Place		Special field.
1.	National Bureau of Plant Genetic. Resources. NBPGR.	New Delhi	National facility for plant culture ‘repository for Germ plasm conservation of clonal crops
2.	Central Institute of Medicinal and aromatic Plants CIMAP	Lucknow	Germ plasm , conservation of Medicinal plants.
3.	Tropical Botanical gardens and Research Institute TBRI	Trivandrum	Gene Bank established
4.	National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources NBPGR	New Delhi	Gene Bank established.

On these centres. seed, field bank and plant tissue culturerepository and cryopreservation facilities are also desired.

The universities, research centres and institutes, established and funded by department of biotechnology are doing basic research in the field of medical biotechnology, food and nutrition, bioenergy, bio resources and environment, aquabiotechnology, aquaculture and marine biotechnology etc.

Considering the importance of biotechnology, Rajeev Gandhi Biotechnology Centre was established in Thivanantpuram, Kerala and International Centre of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB) was established in New Delhi by United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) in 1983.

Biotechnology Parks

In our country, total 19 Biotechnology parks have been established to provide information and counselling to the group of people who want to establish biotechnology based Industries. Considering the importance of field of biotechnology, fifteen more biotechnology parks are in consideration for establishment.

Some of the established Biotechnology parks are :

Biotechnology Park, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. Hyderabad Biotechnology Park, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
Golden Jublee Biotech Park. (Biotechnology park) for women, Siruserri, Kanchipuram, TamilNadu. ‘ Guwahati Biotechnology Park, Assam.
Biopharma-IT Park Andharuwa,, Bhubneshwar.
TICL International Biotechnology Park, Hinjawadi. Pune.
KINFRA Biotechnology Park, Kerala.

Scope and Importance of Biotechnology

Human life is affected by biotechnology directly or indirectly. We can say that scope of work in area of biotechnology is very vast ranging from microorganisms to environment and ultimately human welfare. Following are different important areas related with human welfare and environment conservation related to biotechnology.

In Medicinal field

In Modern time, use of biotechnology is highly important in medicinal field. Various efforts and experimentation done in the field of medicinal biotechnology are presented in following table.

S.No.	Production	Importance
1.	Genetic Engineering is used to produce important medicines such as Humulin, Human growth hormone etc. through modified Bacteria	Easy availability of medicines to treat particular disease.
2.	Vaccines obtained through genetically engineered Bacteria	Safe and cheaper as compared to conventional vaccines. (in disease prevention)
3.	DNA analyte product ion by genetically engineered Bacteria.
4.	Production of monoclonal antibodies by Hybridoma technology.	To make immune system effective.
5.	Technique of Gene Treatment.	In treatment of Genetic disorders.
6.	Development of Edible Vaccines	Protection from diseases.

In Plant Biotechnology

Biotechnology techniques are useful in multiplication of plants, conservation, improvement of crops etc. For production of desired metabolic products some other techniques have been developed. Some of the important processes and their utility is mentioned in following table:

S.No.	Method/Process	Utility
1.	Micro propagation	For development of desired plant clones, to conserve rare plant species, commercial production of economically important plants
2.	Somatic embryo production	mentioned as above
3.	Somatic clones	For production of secondary metabolites.
4.	Haploid Plant Production	Development of pure- line varieties of plant for crop improvement.
5.	Apical meristem culture	Development of vims free plants.
6.	Production of Artificial seeds	Encapsulation of vegetative/somati c embryo.

In the field of Animal Biotechnology

1. Ian Wilmut and Co-workers from Rusalian institute Scottland were able to produce first mammalian clone by fusion of enucleated ovum of scotish Black Face sheep and nucleus of somatic cell of a six year old Finn Dorset sheep on 5th July 1956.

2. Wilmut and co-workders gave official information of this through media on Feb. 22, 1997 and named this first mammalian clone as “Dolly”.

3. This opened a new door in the field of animal cloning. Up to now more than twenty animal clones with desired features have been developed.

In Production of Materials of Commercial importance

By the use of cell and tissue culture technique, several commercially important products such as alcohol, acetone, glycerol, different types of organic acids, vitamines,
enzymes and by single cell culture, antibiotics, biogas etc. are being produced by using transformation technique of cell culture, less useful products can be converted into more useful products.

In conservation of Environment

Selected and transformed strains of Bacteria are used in sewage treatment, detoxification of toxic effluents of industrial units and degradation of mineral oil etc..
Pseudomonasputrida strain discovered by Anand Mohan Chakraborty, and often called super bug can control almost three fourth of oil-pollution.

Branches of Biotechnology

The main branches of biotechnology are as follows :

Plant biotechnology
Animal biotechnology
Food and nutrition bitoechnology
Medical biotechnology
Bioresource and environmental biotechnology
Marine biotechnology
Bioinformatics biotechnology.